Colorectal Cancer

New Cases Per Year

Approximately 1.9 million new colorectal cancer cases are diagnosed globally each year, making it the third most common cancer worldwide.

Source: WHO; ACS

Most Common Cancer

Colorectal cancer ranks third in incidence among all cancers. Incidence rates are rising in adults under 50, a trend that has alarmed researchers.

Source: Siegel et al., 2023

5-Year Survival at Stage I

When caught early (Stage I), the 5-year relative survival rate exceeds 90%. Colorectal cancer is highly preventable and treatable with screening.

Source: NCI; ACS

Understanding the Basics

What Is Colorectal Cancer?

Colorectal cancer is cancer that starts in the colon (the large intestine) or the rectum (the last several inches of the colon, ending at the anus). Together, the colon and rectum make up the large bowel. When cancer develops in either location, it is collectively called colorectal cancer (CRC). If it starts specifically in the colon, you may hear it called colon cancer; if it starts in the rectum, rectal cancer.

Most colorectal cancers begin as small, noncancerous growths on the inner lining of the colon or rectum called polyps. Not all polyps become cancer, but certain types — particularly adenomatous polyps (adenomas) — can develop into cancer over time. This process, known as the adenoma-to-carcinoma sequence, typically takes 10 to 15 years, which is why regular screening and polyp removal is so effective at preventing this disease.

The colon absorbs water and nutrients from digested food; the rectum stores stool before it leaves the body. Cancers in these areas can disrupt these functions, cause bleeding, obstruct the bowel, and — if untreated — spread to lymph nodes and distant organs, most commonly the liver and lungs.

Histologic Types

Types of Colorectal Cancer

Not all colorectal cancers are the same. The type depends on which cells within the colon or rectum become cancerous.

Adenocarcinoma (95%+ of cases)

The overwhelming majority of colorectal cancers are adenocarcinomas — cancers that develop from the glandular cells lining the inside of the colon and rectum. When your doctor says "colorectal cancer," they almost always mean adenocarcinoma. Within this category are subtypes including mucinous adenocarcinoma (which produces mucus) and signet ring cell carcinoma (a rarer, often more aggressive form).

Carcinoid Tumors (Neuroendocrine Tumors)

These develop from hormone-producing cells in the intestinal lining. They tend to grow slowly and may not cause symptoms until they are advanced. Treatment and outlook differ significantly from adenocarcinoma.

Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GISTs)

GISTs arise from specialized cells in the wall of the GI tract called interstitial cells of Cajal. While more common in the stomach, they can occur in the colon or rectum. They are treated with targeted therapies such as imatinib rather than standard chemotherapy.

Lymphoma

Lymphomas are cancers of the immune system that typically start in lymph nodes, but they can also begin in the colon or rectum. Primary colorectal lymphoma is uncommon and is staged and treated differently from adenocarcinoma.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (Rare)

Very rarely, cancers resembling squamous cell carcinomas (typically seen in the skin or esophagus) develop in the colon or rectum. These are treated differently from adenocarcinomas and are more commonly associated with the anal canal.

Who Is Affected

Risk Factors

Having one or more risk factors does not mean you will get colorectal cancer, and some people develop it without any known risk factors. But understanding these factors helps you and your doctor make informed decisions about screening.

Age. Risk increases significantly after age 45–50. However, incidence in adults under 50 is rising sharply.
Family history. Having a first-degree relative (parent, sibling, or child) with colorectal cancer approximately doubles your risk, especially if they were diagnosed before age 50.
Lynch syndrome (Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer / HNPCC). This inherited condition, caused by mutations in mismatch repair (MMR) genes — MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, or PMS2 — dramatically increases lifetime risk of CRC (up to 70–80%). Screening should begin much earlier.
Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP). This rare inherited condition causes hundreds to thousands of polyps in the colon, almost guaranteeing CRC without preventive surgery.
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Long-standing ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease of the colon increases risk. The longer you have had IBD and the more of the colon that is affected, the higher the risk.
Diet high in red and processed meat. Diets heavy in red meat (beef, pork, lamb) and processed meats (hot dogs, sausages, deli meats) are associated with increased risk. The WHO classifies processed meat as a Group 1 carcinogen.
Obesity. Being overweight or obese increases risk in both men and women, with a stronger association in men.
Smoking. Long-term smoking increases both the risk of developing colorectal cancer and the risk of dying from it.
Heavy alcohol use. Moderate to heavy drinking (3+ drinks per day) is linked to increased CRC risk.
Sedentary lifestyle. Regular physical activity has been consistently shown to lower CRC risk. People who are physically inactive face higher risk.
Type 2 diabetes. People with Type 2 diabetes have an increased risk of colorectal cancer, independent of obesity. Insulin resistance may play a role.

Early Detection

Screening

Screening is the single most powerful tool against colorectal cancer. It can find polyps before they become cancer and detect cancer at an early, highly curable stage. In 2018, the American Cancer Society (ACS) lowered the recommended starting age for average-risk screening from 50 to 45 — a change later endorsed by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) in 2021. People at higher risk (family history, Lynch syndrome, IBD) should begin screening earlier and more frequently, as determined by their doctor.

Screening Methods

Colonoscopy (Gold Standard)

A flexible camera (colonoscope) examines the entire colon and rectum. Polyps can be found and removed during the same procedure. If no polyps are found, repeat every 10 years for average-risk individuals. Requires bowel preparation the day before.

FIT (Fecal Immunochemical Test)

A stool-based test that detects hidden blood — a potential sign of polyps or cancer. Done at home annually. Non-invasive and no bowel prep required. A positive result requires follow-up colonoscopy.

FIT-DNA / Cologuard

Combines FIT with a test for altered DNA shed by cancerous or precancerous cells. Done at home every 3 years. Higher sensitivity than FIT alone but also more false positives. A positive result requires follow-up colonoscopy.

CT Colonography (Virtual Colonoscopy)

Uses CT imaging to create detailed pictures of the colon. Less invasive than traditional colonoscopy but still requires bowel prep. If polyps are found, a standard colonoscopy is needed to remove them. Recommended every 5 years.

High-Risk Screening

If you have Lynch syndrome, FAP, a strong family history, or a history of IBD, your doctor will likely recommend starting colonoscopy screening before age 45 — often at age 20–25 for Lynch syndrome or FAP, or 8–10 years after IBD diagnosis — and repeating it more frequently (every 1–2 years).

The bottom line: The best screening test is the one you actually complete. Talk to your doctor about which method is right for you, but do not skip screening altogether.

Warning Signs

Symptoms

Many early colorectal cancers produce no symptoms at all. This is exactly why screening is so important. When symptoms do appear, they may include:

Blood in the stool. This may appear bright red or make the stool very dark (tarry). Do not assume rectal bleeding is "just hemorrhoids" — get it checked.
Persistent change in bowel habits. Diarrhea, constipation, or narrowing of the stool that lasts more than a few days.
Abdominal pain or cramping. Persistent discomfort, bloating, fullness, or cramps that do not resolve.
Unexplained weight loss. Losing weight without trying can be a sign of many cancers, including CRC.
Fatigue and weakness. Persistent tiredness that does not improve with rest.
Iron-deficiency anemia. Chronic, slow blood loss from a tumor can deplete iron stores, sometimes discovered through routine bloodwork before other symptoms appear.
Feeling that the bowel does not empty completely. A sensation of incomplete evacuation, especially with rectal cancers.

Finding Answers

Diagnosis

If screening or symptoms raise suspicion for colorectal cancer, several tests are used to confirm the diagnosis and determine how far the cancer has spread.

Core Diagnostic Tools

Colonoscopy with biopsy. The definitive diagnostic step. A colonoscopy allows the doctor to see the tumor directly and take tissue samples (biopsies). A pathologist examines these samples under a microscope to confirm cancer, determine the type, and assess grade.
CT scan (chest, abdomen, pelvis). Used for staging — determining whether cancer has spread to lymph nodes, liver, lungs, or other organs.
MRI. Particularly important for rectal cancer to assess how deeply the tumor invades the rectal wall and its relationship to surrounding structures. Helps plan surgery.
CEA blood test (Carcinoembryonic Antigen). A tumor marker that can be elevated in colorectal cancer. Not used for screening or initial diagnosis, but used as a baseline before treatment and monitored over time to detect recurrence.
Molecular / biomarker testing. The tumor tissue is tested for MSI/MMR status, KRAS, NRAS, BRAF mutations, and sometimes HER2 amplification. These results guide treatment decisions, especially for advanced disease. (See the Biomarkers section below.)

How Far Has It Spread?

Staging (TNM System)

Staging describes how far colorectal cancer has spread. The TNM system — developed by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) — evaluates three components: T (tumor size and depth of invasion), N (lymph node involvement), and M (distant metastasis). These combine into an overall stage from 0 to IV.

Note: You may also see the historical Dukes staging system (A through D), which was widely used before TNM became the standard. Your pathology report will almost always use TNM.

Stage 0 — Carcinoma In Situ

Abnormal cells are found only in the innermost lining (mucosa) of the colon or rectum. These cells have the potential to become cancer. Also called "intramucosal carcinoma." Typically treated with polypectomy alone during colonoscopy. Not yet technically an invasive cancer.

Stage I — Early, Localized

Cancer has grown through the mucosa into the submucosa (T1) or into the muscle layer of the colon/rectum wall (T2), but has not spread to lymph nodes or distant sites. Five-year survival exceeds 90%. Surgery alone is typically curative.

Stage II — Locally Advanced, Node-Negative

Cancer has grown through the wall of the colon or rectum (T3 or T4) but has not spread to lymph nodes. Stage IIA means the tumor has grown through the outermost layers (serosa). Stage IIB/IIC indicates the tumor has grown into or through the visceral peritoneum or has directly invaded other organs. Surgery is the primary treatment; adjuvant chemotherapy may be considered for high-risk Stage II cases (e.g., T4 tumors, poorly differentiated histology, MSS/MMR-proficient status, or fewer than 12 lymph nodes examined).

Stage III — Lymph Node Involvement

Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes but not to distant sites. This is subdivided into IIIA, IIIB, and IIIC depending on how many lymph nodes are involved and the depth of tumor invasion. Treatment involves surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy (most commonly FOLFOX for about 3–6 months). Five-year survival ranges from approximately 50% to 80%, depending on the substage.

Stage IV — Metastatic

Cancer has spread to distant organs. Stage IVA means spread to one distant organ (most commonly the liver or lungs). Stage IVB involves two or more distant organs. Stage IVC means spread to the peritoneum (abdominal lining). Treatment is typically systemic (chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and/or immunotherapy). In some cases, surgery to remove limited metastases in the liver or lungs can be curative.

Personalized Treatment

Biomarkers — Why They Matter

Biomarker testing (also called molecular testing or tumor profiling) analyzes specific features of your tumor's DNA and proteins. These results directly influence which treatments your oncologist recommends — especially in advanced disease. Here are the key biomarkers tested in colorectal cancer:

MSI / MMR Status

Microsatellite instability (MSI) and mismatch repair (MMR) testing look at how well a cell can correct errors in its DNA. Tumors are classified as MSI-H (high) / dMMR (deficient MMR) or MSS (microsatellite stable) / pMMR (proficient MMR).

Why it matters: MSI-H/dMMR tumors respond remarkably well to immunotherapy (checkpoint inhibitors like pembrolizumab and nivolumab). A landmark 2022 study in The New England Journal of Medicine by Cercek et al. showed that PD-1 blockade alone achieved a 100% clinical complete response rate in a cohort of patients with dMMR locally advanced rectal cancer. MSI-H status also suggests possible Lynch syndrome, triggering genetic counseling referrals. About 15% of all colorectal cancers are MSI-H.

KRAS and NRAS Mutations

KRAS and NRAS are genes in the RAS family. Mutations in these genes are found in approximately 40–50% of colorectal cancers (KRAS) and 3–5% (NRAS).

Why it matters: Tumors with KRAS or NRAS mutations do not respond to anti-EGFR targeted therapies (cetuximab, panitumumab). Testing is essential before prescribing these drugs. Only patients with RAS wild-type (no mutations in KRAS or NRAS) tumors benefit from anti-EGFR therapy.

BRAF V600E Mutation

The BRAF V600E mutation occurs in about 8–12% of colorectal cancers and is generally associated with a more aggressive disease course and poorer prognosis.

Why it matters: BRAF V600E-mutated tumors are treated with a specific combination therapy: encorafenib (a BRAF inhibitor) plus cetuximab (an anti-EGFR antibody), a regimen shown to improve survival in the BEACON CRC trial. Testing for BRAF guides this treatment decision. BRAF V600E is also associated with MSI-H tumors in some cases, particularly in sporadic (non-hereditary) CRC.

HER2 Amplification

HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) overexpression or gene amplification occurs in about 2–6% of colorectal cancers.

Why it matters: HER2-amplified, RAS wild-type colorectal cancers may respond to HER2-targeted therapies (trastuzumab-based combinations) that are already standard in HER2-positive breast and gastric cancers. Clinical trials continue to refine this approach.

PD-L1 Expression

PD-L1 is a protein that can be found on tumor cells and helps cancer evade the immune system.

Why it matters: While PD-L1 expression is a key biomarker in some other cancers (e.g., lung cancer), in colorectal cancer, MSI/MMR status is a more reliable predictor of immunotherapy response. PD-L1 testing may still be performed as part of comprehensive biomarker profiling.

Tumor Mutational Burden (TMB)

TMB measures the total number of mutations found in a tumor's DNA. A high TMB (TMB-H) means the tumor has many mutations.

Why it matters: TMB-H tumors may be more responsive to immunotherapy, as more mutations can mean more "targets" for the immune system to recognize. In colorectal cancer, TMB-H tends to correlate with MSI-H status but not always. Pembrolizumab is FDA-approved for TMB-H solid tumors regardless of cancer type.

Treatment Options

Treatment

Treatment for colorectal cancer depends on the stage at diagnosis, the location (colon vs. rectum), biomarker results, and your overall health. Here is a detailed breakdown of the major treatment approaches.

Surgery

Surgery is the primary treatment for most colorectal cancers that have not spread widely. The type of surgery depends on the size, location, and stage of the tumor.

Polypectomy. Removal of a polyp during colonoscopy. If cancer is contained within the polyp with clear margins, no further surgery may be needed.
Colectomy (partial or total). Removal of the section of colon containing the cancer, along with nearby lymph nodes. The remaining healthy parts of the colon are reconnected (anastomosis). This is the standard surgery for colon cancer. Can be done as open surgery or laparoscopically (minimally invasive).
Low Anterior Resection (LAR). Used for rectal cancers in the upper portion of the rectum. The cancerous section is removed and the colon is reconnected to the remaining rectum, often preserving normal bowel function. A temporary diverting ostomy may be placed to allow healing.
Abdominoperineal Resection (APR). Used for rectal cancers very close to the anal sphincter. The rectum, anus, and surrounding tissue are removed, and a permanent colostomy is created. This is a more extensive surgery but sometimes necessary for low-lying tumors.
Metastasectomy (liver/lung resection). In select patients with limited metastases in the liver or lungs, surgery to remove these metastases can be curative. This is typically combined with chemotherapy and requires evaluation by a multidisciplinary team.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. It is used in several settings for CRC:

Adjuvant chemotherapy — given after surgery (Stage III, and some high-risk Stage II) to destroy any remaining microscopic cancer cells and reduce recurrence risk.
Neoadjuvant chemotherapy — given before surgery, often for rectal cancer, to shrink the tumor and improve surgical outcomes.
Palliative chemotherapy — used in Stage IV to control disease growth, relieve symptoms, and extend survival.

Common Chemotherapy Regimens

FOLFOX (5-FU + leucovorin + oxaliplatin) — the most common adjuvant regimen for Stage III CRC. Given every 2 weeks for 3–6 months.
FOLFIRI (5-FU + leucovorin + irinotecan) — commonly used for metastatic CRC, either as first-line or after FOLFOX progression.
Capecitabine (Xeloda) — an oral chemotherapy pill that converts to 5-FU in the body. Used alone for lower-risk adjuvant treatment or combined with oxaliplatin (CAPOX/XELOX).

Targeted Therapy

Targeted drugs attack specific molecules involved in cancer growth, often used in combination with chemotherapy for metastatic CRC.

Bevacizumab (Avastin). An anti-VEGF antibody that blocks blood vessel growth to tumors. Used with chemotherapy for metastatic CRC regardless of RAS status.
Cetuximab (Erbitux) and Panitumumab (Vectibix). Anti-EGFR antibodies used only for RAS wild-type, left-sided tumors. Tumor sidedness matters: these drugs are most effective for cancers in the left colon (splenic flexure, descending, sigmoid) and rectum.
Encorafenib (Braftovi) + Cetuximab. Specifically for BRAF V600E-mutated CRC. This combination (from the BEACON CRC trial) improved overall survival compared to standard chemotherapy.

Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy helps the immune system recognize and attack cancer cells. In colorectal cancer, its role is defined by MSI/MMR status.

For MSI-H / dMMR Tumors

Pembrolizumab (Keytruda). FDA-approved as first-line treatment for MSI-H/dMMR metastatic CRC. The KEYNOTE-177 trial showed pembrolizumab significantly improved progression-free survival compared to standard chemotherapy. Also now being studied in earlier stages.
Nivolumab (Opdivo) +/- Ipilimumab (Yervoy). Another checkpoint inhibitor combination approved for MSI-H/dMMR metastatic CRC after prior chemotherapy.

The Cercek et al. 2022 study in locally advanced dMMR rectal cancer (described in Biomarkers) represents a potential paradigm shift: immunotherapy alone may eliminate the need for surgery and radiation in select patients.

For MSS / pMMR Tumors

The majority (~85%) of colorectal cancers are MSS/pMMR and currently do not respond well to standard immunotherapy. Active research is underway to find combinations that can overcome immunotherapy resistance in MSS tumors, including combinations with targeted therapies, radiation, and novel agents. Ask your oncologist about clinical trials.

Radiation Therapy

Radiation is primarily used for rectal cancer, not colon cancer.

Neoadjuvant chemoradiation. Given before surgery for locally advanced rectal cancer (typically Stage II or III) to shrink the tumor and reduce recurrence. Standard approach: 5–6 weeks of radiation with concurrent capecitabine or 5-FU.
Short-course radiation. A more condensed approach (5 days of radiation) followed by chemotherapy, then surgery. Increasingly used as an alternative to long-course chemoradiation.
Palliative radiation. Used in metastatic settings to relieve symptoms such as pain, bleeding, or obstruction.

An Emerging Crisis

Young-Onset Colorectal Cancer

One of the most alarming trends in oncology is the rising incidence of colorectal cancer in adults under 50. Between the mid-1990s and 2020, the incidence of CRC in people ages 20–49 has increased by approximately 1–2% per year in the United States and other high-income countries. In contrast, rates in adults over 50 have been declining, largely due to screening. The reasons for this increase remain under active investigation.

Key Concerns

Symptoms are often dismissed. Young adults who report rectal bleeding, changes in bowel habits, or abdominal pain may be told they are "too young for cancer" or have irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or hemorrhoids. Diagnostic delays are common.
Later-stage diagnosis. Because screening historically did not start until age 50 (now 45), and because symptoms are often dismissed, young adults are more frequently diagnosed at Stage III or IV compared to older adults.
Distinct biology. Young-onset CRC may differ biologically from CRC in older adults, often occurring in the left side (rectum and sigmoid colon) and sometimes showing different molecular profiles.
Genetic testing is critical. All patients diagnosed with CRC under 50 should be assessed for hereditary cancer syndromes, particularly Lynch syndrome. The NCCN recommends universal MSI/MMR testing for all newly diagnosed colorectal cancers, regardless of age.
Unique psychosocial challenges. Young adults face distinct concerns: fertility preservation before treatment, career disruption, young children to care for, body image, and a sense of isolation ("no one my age understands").

Advocacy

If you are a young adult experiencing persistent GI symptoms, advocate for a colonoscopy. Do not accept reassurance based solely on age. Advocacy organizations focused on young-onset CRC (such as the Colorectal Cancer Alliance, Fight Colorectal Cancer, and Never Too Young) provide resources, community, and support.

What to Expect

Side Effects & Living With Treatment

Treatment for colorectal cancer can cause side effects that range from manageable to significantly impactful on quality of life. Here is what to be aware of:

After Surgery

Bowel function changes. After partial colectomy, you may experience more frequent bowel movements, loose stools, urgency, or gas. These often improve over weeks to months as your body adjusts, but some changes may be permanent.
Ostomy care. If you have a colostomy or ileostomy (temporary or permanent), you will need to learn to care for the stoma and manage an ostomy pouch. Wound/ostomy care nurses (WOC nurses) are essential resources. Many people adapt well and live full, active lives with an ostomy.
Low anterior resection syndrome (LARS). After LAR for rectal cancer, you may experience urgency, frequency, incontinence, or clustering of bowel movements. LARS can significantly affect quality of life and should be discussed proactively with your surgical team.

From Chemotherapy

Peripheral neuropathy (oxaliplatin). Oxaliplatin (used in FOLFOX) commonly causes tingling, numbness, or pain in the hands and feet, often triggered by cold. This can be temporary or, in some cases, long-lasting. Tell your oncologist about neuropathy symptoms early — dose adjustments may help prevent permanent damage.
Fatigue. Likely the most common side effect across all chemotherapy regimens. It can persist for weeks or months after treatment ends.
Nausea, diarrhea, mouth sores. Common with 5-FU-based regimens and irinotecan. Anti-nausea medications and dose adjustments can help manage these.
Hand-foot syndrome. Capecitabine can cause redness, swelling, and peeling on the palms and soles. Report early signs to your team.

Fertility Considerations

Discuss fertility before treatment begins. Chemotherapy and pelvic radiation can impair fertility in both men and women. If preserving fertility is important to you, ask for a referral to a reproductive specialist before starting treatment. Options include sperm banking, egg/embryo freezing, and ovarian tissue cryopreservation.
Pelvic radiation and sexual health. Radiation for rectal cancer can affect sexual function in both men (erectile dysfunction) and women (vaginal changes, pain). These are legitimate medical concerns — discuss them openly with your care team.

Be Prepared

Questions to Ask Your Doctor

Bring these questions to your appointments. You have the right to understand your diagnosis and treatment plan.

At Diagnosis

What is my exact diagnosis, including the type, grade, and stage?
Has my tumor been tested for MSI/MMR status, KRAS, NRAS, and BRAF?
What imaging or additional tests do I need before treatment begins?
Should I be referred to a genetic counselor based on my age or family history?
Is a second opinion recommended, and will you support me getting one?

About Screening

When should I start colorectal cancer screening, given my age and risk factors?
Which screening method do you recommend for me — colonoscopy, FIT, or Cologuard?
How often should I be screened if I have a family history of CRC or polyps?
Should my family members get screened earlier because of my diagnosis?
What happens if my FIT or Cologuard test comes back positive?

About Treatment

What are my treatment options, and what do you recommend and why?
Will I need chemotherapy after surgery? For how long?
What are the expected side effects, and how will we manage them?
Is there a clinical trial I should consider for my specific situation?
Will I need an ostomy? If so, will it be temporary or permanent?

About Genetic Testing

Should I have genetic testing for Lynch syndrome or other hereditary cancer syndromes?
What does my MSI/MMR result mean for treatment and for my family?
If I have Lynch syndrome, what cancers am I at increased risk for beyond CRC?
Should my children or siblings see a genetic counselor?
How does my KRAS, NRAS, or BRAF status affect my treatment options?

Evidence Base

Sources & References

Every claim on this page is grounded in established medical literature and clinical guidelines. This page is not a substitute for professional medical advice.

World Health Organization (WHO). "Colorectal Cancer Fact Sheet." who.int
American Cancer Society. "Colorectal Cancer." cancer.org
American Cancer Society. "Colorectal Cancer Screening Guidelines." Updated 2018. Recommended screening beginning at age 45 for average-risk adults. cancer.org
National Cancer Institute. "Colon Cancer Treatment (PDQ) — Health Professional Version." cancer.gov
National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). "NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Colon Cancer / Rectal Cancer." nccn.org
Siegel RL, Wagle NS, Cercek A, Smith RA, Jemal A. "Colorectal cancer statistics, 2023." CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. 2023;73(3):233–254. doi.org/10.3322/caac.21772
Dekker E, Tanis PJ, Vleugels JLA, Kasi PM, Wallace MB. "Colorectal cancer." The Lancet. 2019;394(10207):1467–1480. doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32319-0
Cercek A, Lumish M, Sinopoli J, et al. "PD-1 Blockade in Mismatch Repair–Deficient, Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer." The New England Journal of Medicine. 2022;386(25):2363–2376. doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2201445

Last reviewed: January 2025. StopMyCancer reviews and updates its content regularly as new evidence emerges. If you notice information that appears outdated, please contact us.

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